Scottish whisky mash bill

Malted barley is the main ingredient in Scotch malt whisky. Barley (Hordeum) is a member of grass family, just like most cereals in the world. There are two main types of barley: two-row and six-row. Both have six rows of seeds, but in the two-row varieties only two are fertile. The two-row varieties have usually plumper grains, less protein and husks and more fermentable sugars than the six-row varieties. The British malting barley varieties are and were almost exclusively of the two-rowed type, and the protein-rich six-row barley is mostly used for cattle feed. Barley can be sowed during the winter or in the spring, depending on the variety and the climate. Most distilling malts are made of spring barley, because they malt better with less dormancy issues. European brewers mostly use two-rowed barley, while Americans utilize mostly 6-rowed. Some varieties are naked, ie they do not have so much husks.

During the 17th and 18th century the main cereals grown in Scotland were barley, oats and rye. It is likely that all of them were used to produce distilled spirits (and whisky), although barley was probably favoured for its better enzyme activity. Additionally oats had too much husk for efficient mashing and rye tended to produce excess yeast growth. Mixed fermentations were probably often used, after all distilling was merely a way to preserve excess crop. Martin Martin in 1702 describes the practice on the Isle of Lewis: "The corn grown here is barley, oats and rye... Natives brew several sorts of liquors; as common Uisquebaugh, another called Trestarig, id est Aqua Vitae, three times distilled, which is strong and hot; a third sort is four times distilled Uisquebaugh-baul; id est Uisquebaugh...The Trestarig and Uisquebaugh-baul are made of oats". The oats were likely to produce a wash lower in alcohol and higher in congeners, so the process of three or four distillations makes sense. Multiple distillations and narrower cuts were most likely used to produce a palatable spirit, not so much to reach high alcohol strengths.

Chevallier barley was recently revived in Norwich by Dr Chris Ridout

During the 18th and 19th century the barley varieties used were local landraces, which were selected by the local farmers. In Scotland local landraces, probably most of the variations of Scotch Common, a two-row, narrow-eared, small-grained, early ripening variety, dominated until the 19th century. In colder climates, especially in the Northern Highlands some bere barley, a six-rowed landrace, was cultivated, but it was mostly used as cattle-feed. Most early 19th century English landrace varieties were probably close to Czech Hanna variety, a two-row, early ripening barley with a quite brittle straw. First generally successful variety in Britain was Cheval(l)ier, discovered in Suffolk, 1819. It spread across the country quite rapidly and most of the barley sown in the 1840's Britain was Chevalier, especially in the South. The other widely spread variety in England was Annat (1830) and in Scotland some of the Hanna varieties were still used in the late 19th century.

The price of maize and grain whisky (Weir 1995)

Malted barley was the main ingredient in both pot-still and column still whiskies in the 1830-40s, although column distillers began adding unmalted barley into the mash. In 1848 adjuncts, such as molasses, treacle and sugar were permitted in whisky production (1847 for beer) and further tax cuts made it possible for especially column distillers to produce whisky from a variety of  raw materials, mainly from cheap American maize. Maize was about 30% cheaper than barley at the time and as the production in the USA increased during late 19th century, it quickly became the major ingredient of column still whisky. By 1877 the average grain whisky mash-bill was: maize 77%, barley 20%,oats 2,5%, wheat 0,4%, rye 0,02%, malted barley 0,14%. The grain for column distillers was bought predominantly from abroad, less than 1% of the total grains and 2-6% of the barley were sourced from UK at the time. Oats, rich in fibers, were in mainly to improve the draining. The role of rye was to propagate yeast, while barley provided the enzymes. The cheap maize, efficient continuous Coffey still and the crisis in wine/cognac industry helped the boom of grain whisky in late 19th century. Brewers turned to foreign barley in the late 19th century mainly because of better quality of the Danish malt, not so much for the price. The  Irish distillers used a mixed grain bill from the late 19th century, usually consisting of barley malt (30-50%), unmalted barley (30-40%), oats (20-30%), rye (3-6%) and wheat (5-10%).

The pot-still malt whisky distillers were more traditional, even superstitious in their grain purchases compared to brewers and grain distillers. They used mostly local barley throughout the 19th century, although during the periods of bad harvests and/or higher whisky demands, as during the 1890's whisky boom, they were forced to use some foreign barley, mostly from Denmark, the Baltic and Morocco. There were other significant reasons for pot distillers to use local barley: They were trying to ban the grain distillers from marketing grain spirits as whisky or Scotch and proposed that only whisky made from Scottish grain could be called Scotch. The local farmers also bought much of the draff (waste product of the first distillation, great cattle feed) from the distilleries, so both benefited from direct sales to each other without any mediators. One likely explanation for the local sourcing of barley is the traditional and frankly sometimes superstitious approach on any improvement or change of the process or the product.

Beaven 1947

In the beginning of 20th century the predominant varieties were Annat, Goldthorpe, Archer, Spratt and Chevallier. After the World War I hybrid selections began to be made. Spratt-Archer and Plumage-Archer were popular and together comprised of 80% of malting barley until the World War II. The selections were made mostly based on the yield per acreage and the carbohydrate yield of the malt, flavour was rarely discussed. The foreign barley entered the distilling malt markets in 1920s, sourced mainly from Denmark and Chile (probably 6-rowed), and to some extent from Romania, Tunisia, Canada and Australia. Danish and Australian were preferred of for their quality, but for trade protectionist reasons the distillers (lead by DCL) agreed to by preferentially Scottish and English barley.

In the 1920s the prices of cereals varied widely and grain whisky was made from various ingredients based on the world market. Barley from California and Canada (small 6-row), maize from US and Argentina, oats from Scotland and Canada, even Brazilian manioc were used. The column grain distillers used the cheapest available raw materials, for example the maize bought from USA was usually grade 3, while the US domestic distillers used grade 1-2 maize.

During the WW II, Danish Kenia was grown widely for its better yields, however it was not good for malting and after WW II Pioneer (Kenia x Austrian Tshermarks) and Proctor (Plumage-Archer x Kenia) dominated until 1960 with a acreage up to 70%, although DCL seems to have preferred Zephyr. Due to rapid growth in whisky production in the 1950s, more English and foreign barley was used. If six-row barley was used, the smaller grains were sold to the distillers (more enzymes) and the plumper grain (more yield) to the brewers. Golden Promise and Maris Otter were introduced in 1965. Golden Promise became the barley of choice for distillers for its yield and enzyme activity until 1980s and Maris Otter was the brewers' malt, allegedly for its flavour. In the 1980s German Triumph and its many hybrids (Corgi, Natasha, Optic, Prisma, Camarge) surpassed the Golden Promise for their better yield and some winter varieties were introduced in Southern Scotland (Melanie, Halcyon, Regina). After that many different varieties have been developed and the suitable varieties for distilling and brewing are declared annually by Institute of Brewing and Distilling.

Improvement of spirit yield (Russell, 2003)

Brookes 2005

During the 20th century the acreage yield of barley has increased rapidly. Archer gave less than 3 tonnes per hectare as modern barleys for distilling malt give up to over 8 tonnes per hectare. Also the alcohol yield has improved drastically, from 300 litres of pure alcohol per tonne of dry malt to about 460 lpa/t.

Recently old varieties have been revived, mostly due to growing craft beer movement, but also by some malt distilleries. Bere barley was used in whisky production in Highland Park until 1926 and has since been used mainly for bere bannocks, but also for malt whisky. Bere was 6-row barley variety originating probably from northern Scandinavia with long stem and rapid growth (therefore also called 90-day-barley). Michel Couvreur revived the bere whisky in 1985 when he used bere from Orkney to distill whisky at Edradour. Since then at least Arran, Springbank and Bruichladdich have released bere whisky.

Sadly, there are no scientific comparisons between the flavour of different barley varieties. The early malting varieties were proportionally higher in protein and fat but lower in carbohydrates. Steeping times were much longer, probably because lack of knowledge and to some extent because of dormancy-prone barley varieties. The germination times were longer and the temperatures in floor maltings were more uneven than in modern maltings. These differences most likely made the wort more prone to infections of wild yeast and lactobacilli, along with mostly longer fermentations and lower starting gravity. The consistency was probably more viscous due to greater proportion of betaglucans to alpha-amylases. So the wort was likely to have more husks, dead yeast, autolysis products, lactobacilli, oils, diacetyl, esters (from acids and alcohols) and thicker in consistency causing easier burning in the wash still. The result was likely to be oilier, more sulphury and fruity spirit with more higher alcohols (fusels) and more furfural (from the husks, providing nutty aroma), assuming that the other factors were kept constant. It is unlikely that there are considerable differences within the modern barley varieties in terms of distilling, since the specifications for malting barley are quite strict. However, there is proof that the change of barley variety also changes the lactobacilli flora in the distillery, which might have at least some effect to the spirit if long fermentation times are used. The practice of malting (floor malting/industrial malting) has probably greater effect on flavour than the barley variety.

Maize mill at Dumbarton (I.Hume)

Because the use of enzyme additions is prohibited in Scottish whisky, the grain distilleries continue to use about 10% of malted barley in their mashes to guarantee sufficient enzyme content for starch degradation. Maize from the USA dominated the Scotch grain whisky mash bill from 1860s until early 1980s, excluding the war years. Since then, wheat has surpassed it, mainly because the trade regulations and taxes, not so much because of the actual cost of raw materials. Actually the price of unmalted barley has been quite competitive against maize and wheat in recent decades, but the processing problems have steered most grain distillers to wheat, mainly from France in the 1980s, but lately predominantly from the UK, with a fraction imported from Germany and France. North British is the last Scottish distillery to use predominantly maize, as the other "maize distillery" Dumbarton was closed in 2002. Some maize is still used at least occasionally in most grain distilleries, most likely to minimize viscosity problems. Maize has lower viscosity of mash compared to wheat and malted barley, because of lower amounts of betaglucan and pentoses. Since 1990s the Scottish distillers' maize has been bought exclusively from southern France due to trade barriers of EU. Bakers and farmers prefer high nitrogen wheat, so there is not a serious competition over low-nitrogen grains and distillers' wheat does not carry a price premium.

Biernacka&Wardencki 2013

The differences between wheat and maize spirits are surprisingly clear, there are less differences between wheat, triticale and rye spirits. Maize spirits contain about ten times less higher alcohols than the other grain whiskies, but have proportionally higher levels of esters (fruity). The higher amount of pentoses in maize also contribute to the higher furfural (nutty) content. The greater variety and amount of higher alcohols in wheat spirit account to more harsh, spirity and solventy notes in young spirit, but a likely to develop to a variety of acetals and esters, with more fruity aromas. The popcorn aroma sometimes present in blended whisky is likely to come from too much feints from the malt whisky involved, not from the grain component. The mouthfeel of wheat whisky can be oilier or waxier due to more arabinoxylans, while corn whisky is usually described cleaner and shorter.

Biernacka&Wardencki 2013

REFERENCES
Agu RC et al. Production of grain whisky and ethanol from wheat, maize and other cereals. J Inst Brew 2006;112;4;314-323
Beal, AD & Mottram DS. Compounds contributing to the characteristic aroma of malted barley. J Agric Food Chem 1994;42;2880-4
Biernacka P & Wardencki W. Volatiole composition of raw spirits of different botanical origin. J Inst Brew 2012;118;393-400
Beaven, ES. Barley. Duckworth 1947
Briggs, D. Malts and Malting, Blackie 1998
Bringhurst TA. Barley research in realtion to Scotch whisky production. J Inst Brew 2015;1;1-18
Brookes, P. Barley Breeding and development in the UK, an historical perspective. Brew Hist 2005;121;25-39
Bryce JH et al (ed). Distilled spirits: Production, technology and innovation. Nottingham Univ Press 2008
Campbell I (ed). Proceedings of the Third Aviemore Conference on Malting, Brewing and Distilling. Intitute of brewing, 1990.
Collins TS et al. Profiling of nonvolatiles in whiskeys. Food Chem 2014;163;186-196
Cramer ACJ et al. Analysis of volatile compounds from various types of barley cultivars. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53;7526-31
Dong L et al. Characterization of volatile aroma compounds in different brewing barley cultivars. Sci Food Agr 2014
Hoff S et al. Influence of barley varieties on wort quality and performance. J Agric Food Chem 2013;61;1968-76
Hornsey, IS. A History of Beer and Brewing. Royal Society of Chemistry 2003
Lloyd, WJW. Adjuncts. Centenary review. J Inst Brew 1986;92;336-345
Mallett, J. Malt. Brewer's Publications 2014.
Martin, M. A description of the Western Isles. 1702
Martin, P & Chang, X. Bere whisky- rediscovering the spirit of an old barley. Brew Dist Int 2008/4;6;41-43
Mather, RT & Willkie, RT. Distillers' grain manual. Seagram, 1942
Piggott JR et al (ed). The science and technology of whiskies. Longman 1989
Priest, FG & Campbell I (ed). Current developments in brewing and distilling. Aviemore conference 1982.
Robson, F. Cameronbridge, a distilling giant. Brewer Int 2001;1;4;16-19
Russell I (ed). Whisky, technology, production and marketing. Academic Press 2003
Weir, RB. History of the Distillers Company 1877-1939. Oxford 1995.

Fermentation waters

Glenlivet is one of the few Scottish distilleries using hard water,
but nobody told the AD.

Water is used in several phases of whisky production: steeping, mashing, cooling and dilution. Formerly water mills provided much of the energy needed in many distilleries as well. Distilleries have often been founded into places where water is easily available and it is believed at least in the marketing departments that fresh spring water or picturesque peaty burns play a significant role in the manufacturing process.

The most important attributes of steeping and mashing water are its hardness, pH, overall mineral content and microbiological purity.

Water hardness means the concentration of multivalent cations in the water, ie the amount of ions with a charge of +2 or more (mainly calcium and magnesium) and it is usually expressed as concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the water. Soft water is defined as containing under 40-100 mg/l and hard water over 80-200 mg/l of CaCO3, depending on the source.

The pH (pondus hydrogenii) of water means the activity of hydrogen atoms in the water. The pH value describes the acidity of the water in logarithmic scale, ie pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and hundred times more acidic than pH 6.

The malt or grain is another source of acidity in the mash. The darker the roast of the malt, the more acidic it gets. Therefore soft alkaline water is often preferred for brewing pale malts and hard water for darker acidic malts. The malts used in whisky production are as pale as possible to ensure the best alcohol yield. The commonly desired pH for mash is about 5-5,5, a lower pH might cause excessive lactic acid bacteria production and a higher pH a slower or incomplete fermentation. Calcium is the most important mineral affecting both the pH and water hardness. Calcium itself does not taste of anything at usual concentrations, but it lowers the pH, increases water hardness and yeast flocculation and might reduce magnesium making the flavour less sour.

Other important ions in the brewing waters are sodium (Na+) and the common anions; sulphate (SO4^-2), chloride (Cl-) and carbonate (CO3^-2). Sodium softens the water by decreasing the effect of CaCO3 and at higher concentrations (over 50 ppm) makes the water sweet, or even salty (>150 ppm) and sour (>250 ppm). Sulphate enhances bitter, dry and sulphury flavours, complimenting the hoppy aromas of beers and providing antibacterial influence in  both fermentation and bottle-aging, reducing the lactic acid bacteria growth. Chloride enhances malty flavour, but at high concentrations it might give pasty, salty or chlorine aromas. None of Scottish distilleries use chlorinated water for their fermentations.

The local water quality was probably one of the reasons why brewers in Burton-on-Trent and Edinburgh went for bitter highly hopped IPAs (high CaSO4), in Pilzen for light crisp lagers (extremely soft water), in Münich for darker lagers (higher CaCO3), in Dublin for dark stout (high CO3^-2, low Na+ and relatively low Ca+2) and in London for dark sweet porter (high CaCO3 and NaCO3).

Ion concentrations in typical brewing waters (Maltman 2003)

All rainwater is soft, it is in the water reservoirs it acquires its hardness. The longer the water spends in rivers, lochs or underground aquifers, the more time it has to gain solubles from the ground. The geology also plays a significant part, as hard granite or quartz is less soluble than limestone or chalk and very different from young basalt. 

Spring	Burn/River	Loch	Well	Mains
Ardmore	Aberfeldy	Ardbeg	Auchroisk	Devanha
Balvenie	Aberlour	Auchentoshan	Glenlivet	Dundashill
Benriach	Allt-a-bhainne	Bruichladdich	Macallan	Oban
Benromach	Aultmore	Cambus	St Magdalene	Strathdee
Cardhu	Balblair	Cameronbridge	Saucel
Convalmore	Balmenach	Caol Ila	Strathisla
Craigellachie	Benrinnes	Port Dundas
Edradour	Bladnoch	Millburn
Fettercairn	Blair Athol	Garnheath
Glenallachie	Bowmore	Glen Flagler
Glenburngie	Braes	Islabrae
Glencadam	Brora	Killyloch
Glendullan	Bunnahabhain	Kinclaith
Glen Elgin	Caledonian	Nort Port
Glenfarclas	Caperdonich	Port Ellen
Glenfiddich	Clynelish	Provanmill
Glen Garioch	Cragganmore	Pulteney
Glenglassaugh	Daftmill	Riechlachan
Glen Grant	Dailuaine	Rosebank
Glenkinchie	Dallas Dhu	Springbank
Glenmorangie	Dalmore	Longrow
Highland Park	Dalwhinnie	Springside
Longmorn	Deanston	Strathclyde
Mortlach	Glen Albyn	Tobermory
Pittyvaich	Glendronach
Royal Lochnagar	Glen Esk
Strathmill	Glengoyne
Tamdhu	Glenlochy
Tamnavulin	Glenlossie
Teaninich	Glen Mhor
Tomintoul	Glen Moray
	Lochside
	Macduff
	Mannochmore
	Man O'Hoy
	Miltonduff
	Royal Brackla
	Scapa
	Speyburn
	Talisker
	Tomatin
	Tormore
	Tullibardine

Water sources for mashing, hard waters in bold (Modified from Udo, 2006)

Scotland is divided into various different geological areas basically by several southwest-northeast-lines as illustrated below.

Geological map of Scotland (www.scottishgeology.com)

Speyside and the eastern part of Islay lie on the Dalradian rocks, formed about 570 million years ago and consisting mainly of metamorphosed sedimentary mudstone (schist and quartzite) with some granite hills. The rocks are old and resistant, therefore contributing little to the water, rendering it usually very soft, slightly alkaline and low sulphur. Notable exceptions are Glenlivet and Aberlour, which lie on top of granite-rich soil containing some limestone, rendering the water somewhat harder, especially from wells. 

Geology of River Spey (www.snh.org.uk)

The Moray Firth at the Great Glen Fault there is essentially a river delta with mud and sand carried by the rivers, consisting of especially old red sandstone. The red colour comes mainly from iron, but the porous sandstone is also rich in calcium and magnesium, rendering the water in the Northern Highlands and Orkney significantly harder than in the Speyside. The water of Islay lies somewhere in between.

Typical waters from Scotland (UisgeSource)

Several American distillers believe in hard, low-iron water

However, many distilleries do process the waters they use. Apparently all the distilleries use at least ion-exchange methods for their bottling (dilution) water, but not necessarily for the reduction right after distilling (to bring the new make spirit down to 63.4% abv). None use chlorinated water for mashing or dilution nowadays. In the earlier part of the 20th century local bottling water was used and there were complaints that London water turned the whisky blue and cloudy whereas Speyside water did not, probably due to harder water of London. Although there are several breweries applying reverse osmosis (demineralization) and specifically mineralized (Burtonized) waters, these methods are not used in the distilling industry, or at least they are not made public. Water softening with resins is not used, and it could be detrimental because it tends to increase the sodium levels. Grain distilleries might benefit from hard water, as the calcium induces enzyme activity and lower malt contents and faster fermentations could be possible, although it is not entirely clear whether the mineralization of mashing waters is allowed by the law and the Scotch Whisky Association.

So, fermentation waters affect the quality of mash. The minerals themselves do not significantly distill into the spirit, but they affect the fermentation process before it. Soft water probably produces more faster fermentations and lactic acid bacteria growth generally resulting in heavier spirits, as the harder Highland waters produce cleaner and sweeter spirits. Iron is considered as a fault in brewing water and it is likely to produce less estery, fruity spirits. Zinc might do the same at higher concentrations, but is vital for yeast cells in lower concentrations. Peaty water does not provide enough phenols to render the spirit peaty, but higher amount of organics in the fermentation water does produce more esters and less higher alcohols, probably due to greater bacterial growth and yeast autolysis. Fermentation water quality is important to the quality of whisky, but in a different way it has been marketed.

Effect of brewing water to the spirit sensory quality (Wilson, 2010)

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Cribb, S&J. Whisky on the rocks. Earthwise, 1998
Geikie, A. The Scenery of Scotland viewed in connection with its Physical Geology. Macmillan 1887.
Goldamer, T. Brewer's handbook. Apex, 2008
Maltman, A. Wine, beer and whisky: The role of geology. GeologyToday 2003;19;1;22-29
Palmer, J & Kaminski, C. Water, a comprehensive guide for brewers. Brewers Assoc., 2013
Scottish Natural Heritage. http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/consults/spey/speyreport.pdf

Wilson, CA et al. The role of water composition on malt spirit quality. Nottingham Univ Press, 2010

Bengt Thorbjörnson in Scotland, 1929

Bengt Thorbjörnson (1891-1975) was a Swedish chemical engineer. After graduating from Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan of Stockholm he worked in sulphite factory in Bergvik (1916-1917), which manufactured sulphite spirits as a side product from 1911 at least until 1917. In 1917 he moved to Kramfors to work in a cellulose factory (1917-24) also producing industrial spirits as a side product. After a short spell at a margarin factory in Kalmar (1924-26) and a visit to Nashwalk Pulp & Paper Co in USA (1924-1925) he was appointed as the chief chemical engineer for Vin & Sprit AB (Wine & Spirit). He continued to work for the biggest Swedish alcohol producer for 30 years until 1957.

Bengt Thorbjörnson on the left

 Thorbjörnson toured Scottish whisky retailers and distillers in 1929-1930. The main object was to investigate whether it was profitable to start whisky production in Sweden. After the tour the Finnish alcohol monopoly consulted Thorbjörnson on the same subject and the record of the Scottish tour is still available in Swedish from the Kansallisarkisto (The National Archive) of Helsinki. Thorbjörnson visited the warehouses of W.H. Chaplin, John Walker & Son and The Distillers Company, as  well as the distilleries in Caledonian, Mortlach, Cardow (Cardhu), Glen-Mhor, Glen Albyn and Adelphi.

He preferred the Highland malts and considered the Campbeltown malts were "lacking midtaste". The factors most affecting the flavour of whisky according to his studies were: 1) Water, which should be low in calcium. The water of River Spey was good as it ran through soil rich in granite and sand. 2) Climate, which should be quite cold but even to allow long stable distilling times. 3) Amount of peat used in drying the malt. 4) Bacteriae flora, as the local bacteriae influenced the quality of the brew. 5) Experience of staff. 

The first place to visit was the wine and spirit retailer W.H.Chaplin & Co in London, who were at the time the sole representatives of the popular Long John brand. Their warehouse at Tower Hill consisted of 10 floors, of which 3 were underground. Huge glazed concrete cisterns (136 000 l) were used to vat and cold-chill-filter port wine. The whisky was vatted on demand in smaller concrete vats of size about 22 000 litres from different casks and different distilleries. According to other sources, Ben Nevis was the leading malt for Long John.

At John Walker & Son Thorbjörnson was hosted by the manager Sir Alexander Walker. At the time their Johnnie Walker blend was the most sold whisky brand in the world. Only sherry casks were used at the time. About 20% of them were new casks seasoned with sherry and the rest were refill casks rejuvenated with a small amount (about 35 litres) of sweet dark sherry for six weeks during which they were turned regularly. After the sherry-seasoning they are treated with pressure to impregnate more sherry into the wood. The sherry in the cask was then poured off and used several times for other casks. The pressure treatment had been developed by WP Lowrie in late 19th century and at the time of Thorbjörnson's visit it was used by many other blenders and distilleries as well. The Walkers had recently shifted to mainly hogshead size casks to ensure even quality. At the present time the Johnnie Walker recipe consisted of 10 parts Highland malt (Mortlach, Benrinnes, Ord, Cardow, Glenlossie, Dailuaine, Aultmore, Coleburn or Clynelish), 2 parts of Islay malt (Talisker (classified as Islay!), Caol Ila or Lagavulin) and 2 parts of Lowland malt (Rosebank or Glenkinchie). The blended malt was then again blended with grain whisky (mostly Caledonian) and the malt content varied between 40-60%. Long John blend consisted of 65% grain, 15% Lowland malt, 15% Highland malt and 5% Islay malts.

Caledonian distillery in 1966 (scotlandsplaces.gov.uk)

Caledonian grain distillery produced 40 000 gallons per week, which equalled 9 000 000 litres 50% abv- spirit per year. Maize was the most common cereal, but wheat and barley were sometimes used, too. About 30% of the mash came from barley malt dried over coal fire to gain diastase power. The maize flour was pressure cooked to prevent bacterial contamination. Brewers' yeast from Edinburgh was used to ferment in covered washbacks of 225 000 litres capacity (Cardow used pressed yeast). Carbon dioxide was collected and sold to mineral water producers. Column distillation with 20 plates in the analyser and 40 plates in the rectifier was used to produce new make spirit of 67 degrees over proof (95,3% ABV). The spirit was cut with water to 11 over proof (63,4% abv) for maturation. Draff was given for free to farmers. At the Adelphi grain distillery weekly production was 36 000 gallons/week and the only significant differences were the cooking of maize (not pressurised in Adelphi) and the fermentation time (72h in Adelphi, 96h in Caledonian). About 125 men were employed in each.

Mortlach produced high quality Highland malt with "quite old-fashioned means". A total of 24 men were employed to produce 8 000 gallons per week. Production was bigger than at the Invergordon distilleries, as Glen-Mhor and Glen Albyn managed only 2 500-3 000 gallons per week each. Distillation was carried out from September to end of May and the spring production was considered to be of the best quality. Mostly foreign barley was used and floor malted on site. Two kilns were used to dry malt for 50 hours in up to 77C after 9 days of germination. About 18 kg peat for every 120 kg of coal was used in kilning. Fermentation time in seven 60 000 gallon washbacks varied between 46-56 hours. After each fermentation the washbacks were washed with lime and peat was burned on the bottom of the washback to avoid bacterial contamination. The spirit was double distilled (no mention of the Wee Witchie or even partial triple distillation) to a very high proof of 45 over proof (82,8% abv) and reduced to standard 63,4% before maturation. Rummagers for wash still and direct firing with coal for both stills were used. 

Thorbjörnson calculated that the blending and maturation was cheaper in big English warehouses compared to the Swedish Reymersholm or Slottet warehouses. He also thought that the flavours came mostly from the malt whiskies and therefore the malt content of the Swedish blends (Crown Blend and Black Label) should be increased. On the other hand Scotch grain whisky could be replaced with cheaper domestic neutral potato spirit to cut costs. He also made a a costs-analysis for building a Swedish malt distillery with a 500 000 litres capacity per 6 months, which apparently never came to be.

References and further reading:
Kansallisarkisto, Helsinki. http://www.arkisto.fi/en/the-national-archives-service/arkistolaitoksen-vaiheet-2

Koch B. Från idé till produkt. Svenska Uppfinnarföreningen, 1963.

Morrice, P. Schweppes guide to Scotch. Alphabooks 1983
Spiller, B. Cardhu. John Walker & Sons, 1985.

Finnish whisky

Early 20th century wine and spirit store in Turku (Marli)

Finland was occupied by Russia in 1808-1809 and the imports of all neutral spirits (paloviina) were prohibited by the Finnish senate under the new Russian order in 1809 (revised in 1859 and 1889). The imports of whisky were prohibited too, as most of the Finnish customs officers classified whisky as neutral spirit. Cognac was

One of the first Finnish whisky ads 29.5.1904

allowed and marketed at least from the 1820s, although much of it was probably coloured and/or spiced neutral spirits imported from Estonia, Germany and Sweden.

The English traders complained in 1901 that customs of Finland were not fair as imports of cognac were allowed, but not of whisky. It was until 27.5.1904 the senate declared that whisky was not a neutral spirit and the imports should be allowed. Just in the next couple of days there were over a dozen of traders advertising their whiskies in the Finnish newpapers. The first companies with big advertising budgets were Buchanan's, Dewar's and The Distillers Company Ltd (DCL) with different brands, such as King George IV, White Label, Highland Club, House of Lords and Perfection. Several Finnish wine traders advertised their own whiskies, often unbranded at the beginning of the century. Kinahan's Irish "L.L." Lord-Lieutenant Blended Whisky (without the 'e') was imported from Dublin (before its liquididation in 1910) and some unbranded American ryes and bourbons were available. 

"The biggest whisky company in Scotland, DCL, importer for the courts and all countries. Owns the biggest export warehouses of only the old clarified absolutely pure and noble. Highest and the most original brand: "King George IV" gold label, next "Distillers", "King George IV" white label, "D.C.L." (pronounced Di, Si, Ell.) and "Highland Club". British favourite drink: "King George IV" gold label for courts, clubs and first class hotels."


Below is is quite an impressive piece of early Finnish whisky journalism, published in the newspaper Otava 2.6.1904, just a week after the legalization of whisky, written by "Kimmo".

(Very) Roughly translated to English (sorry, Kimmo): "... Despite these original forms of civilizations [referring to the distilling of paloviina] we have been flooded with western European civilization in the form of cognacs, wines and liqueurs. Mostly this European civilization has been French, German and partly Hungarian. Therefore no-one can claim that Finland would not be European enough. Only English civilization has been an unfamiliar and a forbidden fruit for us. We have imported machinery, cloth, many useful tools, even noble ideas and exported butter, timber and reels, but civilization in the form understandable to Ananias Piirakainen, we have not received. The English do not have
anything else than the whisky-civilization, but the Finnish government have until now counted whisky as a neutral spirit and therefore have prohibited the import, as we do have enough of our own domestic civilization of illicit distilling. But now has the change come, now have the doors of whisky-civilization been opened for us, too! According to the senate it is now allowed to import whisky and it will be handled equal to cognac in the customs. Hardly was the decision signed when the Helsinki papers were filled with big whisky adverts. In this era of electricity, whisky was probably flowing through the cables as soon as it was allowed to enter the country. But let us see now what the former forbidden fruit is! The word whisky (pronounced uiski) is derived from the gaelic words "uisge beatha", which mean the water of life. It is a spirit burnt from malted barley. It was first distilled and drunk in Ireland and Scottish Highlands only, but later it spread to England and the world. As early as in the 14th century the Irish have been said to be able to distill whisky. Just as we have many sorts of spirits, so does the whisky come in differnt sorts. The most famous are the "L.L." (Lord Liutenant) made in Dublin and "Scotch Whisky", which tastes peculiary smoky. In the Northern America whisky is mainly made of rye and corn. "Rye whisky" is made mainly of rye, "malt whisky" of bare malts and "bourbon" of corn and malted rye. In addition there is "whisky cordial", which is a liqueur made of whisky. Well, that's enough for the time." 

Advert 1904

Uusi Suometar (29.5.1904) magazine knew that whisky was made with malted barley, with sometimes oats added, and that it was more expensive than cognac because of the longer maturation time and that the average proof was 53% abv.

The sales of whisky in Finland did not increase as expected. In 1904 there were only some 6000 litres of whisky imported and the next year it fell below 5000 litres. It was a tiny amount compared to the sales of other legal spirits of over 400 000 litres per year; paloviina sales were just below 200 000 litres and cognac over 100 000 litres per annum. The whisky sales increased slightly from 1908 to 1911; 6367 litres,  8568 litres, 11083 litres, 12959 litres, respectively. During the First World War 1914-1917 alcohol sales were allowed only in first class hotels and pharmacies, and as a result the Finnish consumption of alcohol per capita was the lowest in Europe. The Finnish senate passed the alcohol prohibition law in 1907 and again in 1909 and 1911. However it was not confirmed by the Russian goverment until 1917 after the Russian revolution and just before the Finnish independence in 6.12.1917 and it was until 1.6.1919 that the Finnish prohibition law took effect.

Glen Grant ad from 1932

As the alcohol prohibition was imposed, the Finnish state founded Valtion Alkoholiyhtiö Oy (State Alcohol corporation) to provide the nation with the alcohol for medical, technical and scientific purposes. Neutral grain and potato spirit was imported from Sweden and the UK. The corporation acquired the Kronan distillery in august 1919 for own production of spirit and yeast. The next year the distilleries of Tornator (Tainionkoski) and Hyvinkään Tehtaat (renamed as Rajamäki in 1923) were acquired. New distilleries were built in Enso in 1936 (lost in the WW II to USSR) and Koskenkorva in 1941. Distilleries produced both grain and potato spirits and additionally rectified sulphite spirits, which were cheap sideproducts from paper plants. The most commonly available alcohol during the prohibition was smuggled Estonian or German neutral spirit. Valtion Alkoholiliike was lead by a apothecarist I.R.Lindqvist, who apparently did not wholly support the prohibition and kept a broad selection of imported beverages available for medicinal purposes. The legal sales of strong spirits varied from 13 989 litres (1919) to 70 704 litres (1927) per annum during the prohibition 1919-1932. Most of it was probably neutral spirit and cognac (23 varieties), but at least seven different Scotch whiskies were imported. The selection included 5 malagas, 8 ports, 15 madeiras, 6 sherries, 1 marsala, 5 tokays, 6 sauternes, 8 other sweet wines, 28 reds, 21 whites and 5 champagnes, arguably sufficient selection for purely medicinal purposes.

Whiskies available for medicinal purposes in Finland 1926-1927

After the repeal of the prohibition, the state monopoly Oy Alkoholiliike Ab for alcohol production and sales was founded in 11.2.1932 (renamed as Alko in 1969 and Altia in 1999). The first shops opened 5th April 1932 at 10:00 am (5-4-3-2-1-0) . The sortiment was rather good with 156 items, including 16 blended whiskies.

Whiskies available in the Finnish Alko 5.4.1932, prices in FIM

The first whisky trade was made in a hurry during the spring of 1932. The newly founded company was not very organized and the first consignment with DCL for 5 600 cases (67 200 bottles) of whisky was signed on a small sheet of notebook in 5.3.1932. As the DCL wanted to confirm the transportation by sending a telegraph "Where is the ship?", the Finnish side responded: "Comes tomorrow - to the port of Scotland". Somehow the trade was pulled through in less than a month and the first shipment arrived just on time before the opening of the first shops in 5.4.1932. The whisky trade even got a head start as some shipments were caught up by pack ice in the Baltic sea and for example the deliveries of cognac were delayed.

Viski-Viina, product n:o 2

Later in that year one Irish (Paddy), one Canadian (Canadian Club) and one pure malt (Glen Grant) whisky were added to the selection. Viski-Viina, a matured Scotch grain whisky blended with two thirds of Finnish neutral grain spirit, was also introduced in 1932. The Finnish taste preferred the "cut" cognac Jaloviina, and so Viski-Viina was discontinued in 1941. In 1933 the Leijona Whiskies were introduced. They were Scottish (most likely DCL) whiskies bottled in Finland, aged 3, 5, 7 or 8 years and branded with one, two, three or four lions respectively. One and two lions were not popular and were discontinued in 1941, four lions was available until 1997. Kolmen Leijonan Whisky (three lions) is still for sale as a blended whisky and it was also available as a vatted malt until 2010.

Vatting tanks in Salmisaari

Alko investigated the possibility of own whisky production in 1930s and Bengt Thorbjörnson of Vin & Spritcentralen of Sweden was consulted on the subject. He advised against own whisky production and in fact against own maturation. Despite of that Alko kept importing considerable amounts of whisky in casks. A barrel of Finnish pure grain spirits was laid down in oak cask before the WW II, but it was used as a blending material for the popular Rajamäki Akvavit after the war, rather than marketed as whisky.






First real attempts to produce Finnish whisky in Alko started in the 1950s. The experiments were made in the Rajamäki distillery, which at the time had four different stills in use: two versions of the French double column Barbét still, a ten fold Savalle still and a Guillaume rectifier. Most likely the old Barbét still was used. Pyynikki brewery provided the peated barley malts and the distilling expertise of Sami Suominen, who had been studying brewing and distilling in the USA. Production was 60-70 000 litres per annum and after nine months of maturation in Alko's own imported sherry casks the whisky was considered "as good as an excellent American whiskey". For some reason the whisky did not get into market, but was rather used as a flavour component in Tähkäviina, a spiced spirit manufactured by Alko in 1960-1999. Another "own" whisky production by Alko was the Lion Blend, a retake on the unsuccessful Viski-Viina, a blend of Scottish whiskies and unmatured Finnish grain spirit, blended and bottled in Finland (1969-1990).

Whiskies for sale in Alko, 1972

Cooper in Salmisaari, 1950s

In 1973 Alko experimented with maturation of new make Scotch whisky in the Rajamäki warehouses using Alko's own oak casks. A similar sample was matured in a Scottish warehouse for comparison. After few years the Rajamäki warehouse was considered too warm and the stocks were moved to the bigger, colder and damper Salmisaari cellars. Most of this spirit (46 350 litres) was later used for the Lion Blend.

Alko's own whisky distillation started in 1975 in Rajamäki with an old spice still. The peated malts came from Lahden Polttimo maltings. Later quite substantial amounts of these peated whisky malts were exported to both Scottish and Japanese whisky distillers in the 1970s and the 1980s. Today Lahden polttimo produces malts for Teerenpeli and Macmyra under the name of Viking malt.


Malt exports from Lahden Polttimo (tons of barley)

Old spice still in Salmisaari

After some test runs the whisky production was transferred to Koskenkorva in late 1976, where the old Barbét column still was used. The trays of the column still could be set to seven different settings, all producing different spirits, much in the style of the lomond still. The barrels were acquired from Swedish Vin & Spiritcentralen at the beginning, but it is likely that Alko's own sherry casks and even oak chips were later used, too. The whisky production increased to million litres per annum in 1980 and the first commercial bottling

A diagram of a Barbét double column still

of Alko Whisky was released in 1.10.1981. The column distillation probably dimished the smokiness and the resulting spirit was quite light and woody, resembling more brandy than traditional Scottish malt whisky. The Alko Whisky was not a success among the Scotch whisky drinkers and the sales soon fell to a couple of hundred thousand bottles per annum and it was discontinued in 1994. The whisky matured for over ten years was released as Kypsytetty 10-vuotias Viski (marketed 1994-2000) and the younger surplus whisky was used in blended cocktails such as Prince Edward, Finn Cream and Vilakka. There was also a whisky bottling of Alko's fifty years anniversary presented for the employees of Alko in 5.4.1982.

Alko Whisky (1981-1994)

Viski 88 (1983-1994)

In 1982 Alko started to develop a stronger and more "Scottish" whisky, based on the success of Kolmen Leijonan Whisky (three lions), which was a Scottish blend bottled and partly matured in Finland since 1932. Viski 88 was released in 1.11.1983 and it became quite popular, being the most sold whisky in Finland during the 1980s and the the early 1990s. It was a blend of Scottish and Finnish whiskies with a total malt whisky proportion of 40-50% and matured in Finland. The name was chosen in the celebration of the founding year 1888 of the Rajamäki distillery. The label presents Väinämöinen (the leading character from Kalevala, the national epic poetry of Finland) as pictured on the wall of Vanha Ylioppilastalo (Old Student House) in Helsinki. Coincidentally, that is where the recent Uisge festival has been organised in 2012 and 2013. After the accession to the European Union in 1995 the name of Viski 88 was changed to Double Eight 88 and the production was discontinued in 2000 as the Finnish whisky ran out.

Alko 50-years anniversary bottling

Several independent Finnish whisky distillers have been starting production in the new millenium. Brewery restaurant Beer Hunter's in Pori was founded in 1998 and small batch whisky production started 8.11.2001. Holstein stills and mixture of Spanish sherry casks and new Portuguese casks are used for the Old Buck whisky. Teerenpeli beer restaurant was founded in 1995 in Tampere. Whisky production started in 2002 in pot stills and the first batch of 3yo whisky was released in 2005 and now an 8yo is available. Brewery restaurant Koulu (School) in Turku began their distilling in 2009 in Tuorla and their first ex-bourbon oak matured whisky named Sgoil has just been released as a 3yo. Hermannin Viinitila has recently distilled whisky in co-operation with the monastery of Valamo.

Alko Whisky 10yo 1994-2000

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:
Hahle, P. Apteekit alkoholinjakelukeskuksina kieltolain aikana. 1988
Häikiö, M. Alkon historia. Otava 2007
Kallenautio, J. Kieltolaki ja sen kumoaminen puoluepoliittisena ongelmana. Gummerus 1979
Kaukoranta, A. Sulfiittispriiteollisuus Suomessa. Polar 1981
Kauppila, O. Rajamäen tehtaat. Painokaari 1988
Kauppila, O. Viinejä ja väkeviä. Gummerus 1990
Kauppila, O. Koskenkorvan polttimo ja sen edeltäjät. Painokaari 1988 
Kula, K. 25-vuotias Alko tänään. Alko 1957
Morewood, S. A philosophical and statistical history of the inventions and customs of ancient and modern nations in the manufacture and use of inebriating liquors. 1838. 
Mäntylä, I. Viinissä totuus. Otava 1998
Mäntylä, I. Suomalaisen juoppouden juuret. SKS 1985
Mäntylä, I. Suomalaisen juoppouden kasvu. SHS 1995
Peltonen, M. Kerta kiellon päälle. Tammi 1997
Peltonen, M. Remua ja ryhtiä. Gaudeamus 2002
Peltonen M, et al. Alkoholin vuosisata. SKS 2006
Pullat R&R. Viinameri. Tammi 2012
Sillanpää, M. Kansanhuollon keittoa ja tikkuviinaa. Martinpaino 1997  
Simpura, J. Vapaan viinan aika. Kirjayhtymä 1982
Tuominen, U. Suomen alkoholipolitiikka 1866-1886. SHS 1979
Vehviläinen, O. Lahden Polttimo 1883-1983. Lahden Polttimo 1983
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